National Amphetamine-Type Stimulant Strategy Background Paper: Monograph Series No. 69
1.2 Defining amphetamine-type stimulants
- Acknowledgements
- Abbreviations
- List of Tables
- List of Figures
Chapter 1: Introduction- 1.1 Background to the National Amphetamine-Type Stimulant Strategy
- 1.2 Defining amphetamine-type stimulants
- 1.3 History of amphetamine-type stimulants
- 1.4 Forms of illicit amphetamine-type stimulants
- 1.5 Australian data collections
- 1.6 Availability
- 1.7 Price
- 1.8 Purity
- 1.9 Routes of administration
- 1.10 Summary
Chapter 2 Setting the Context- Chapter 3: Effects of Amphetamine-Type Stimulants
- Chapter 4: Prevention and Harm Reduction
- Chapter 5: Treatment and Service Provision
- Chapter 6: Law Enforcement
- Appendix 1
- Appendix 2
The generic term amphetamine-type stimulants is commonly used to refer to a family of synthetic drugs that are chemically related to the parent compound amphetamine (phenylisopropylamine) (Dyer & Cruickshank, 2005). Also referred to as ‘psychostimulants’, they are distinguishable from ‘botanical’ psychoactive drugs (e.g., heroin, cocaine, cannabis), which are derived from plants (Chawla, 1998). Amphetamines act as central nervous system stimulants, which increase synaptic concentrations of monoamine neurotransmitters in the brain, namely, dopamine, serotonin and noradrenaline (Rothman & Baumann, 2003).
Amphetamine and methamphetamine may also be identified by the chemical terms 1-phenylpropan-2-amine and N-methyl-1-phenyl-propan-2-amine, respectively (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, 1993). Methamphetamine (methly- â-phenylisopropylamine) is structurally similar to amphetamine, but is more potent in that it has proportionally greater central stimulatory effect as well as stronger subjective effects (Degenhardt & Topp, 2003). Crystal methamphetamine, commonly referred to as ‘ice’, is methamphetamine of high purity and manufactured like any other form of methamphetamine, except for an additional step of refinement, known as the ‘conversion process’. Phenethylamines include MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine), commonly referred to as ecstasy, and MDA (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine), which are structurally similar to amphetamine, but produced by a different chemical process (Kalant, 2001). Table 1.1 provides an overview of common illicit ATS, their street names and routes of administration.
In its report on the manufacture, importation and use of amphetamine and other synthetic drugs (AOSD), the Parliamentary Joint Committee on the Australian Crime Commission (2007) commented on the definitions of these drugs contained in the submissions it received. The Australian Federal Police (AFP) stated in their submission that AOSD is a term used by the ACC to incorporate synthetically manufactured illicit drugs and their precursors. On an international level, ATS is the term used to describe this group of drugs. In the interests of international consistency, the AFP continues to use the term ATS and reports separately on ATS and MDMA seizures. The Parliamentary Joint Committee (2007) noted that:
the ambiguity over what is or is not included in the term ATS could lead to confusion for researchers, law enforcement and community support organisations. The Committee recommends the Australian Government and its agencies standardise their use of a descriptor for this class of illicit drugs and clarify what is included in the term selected (p.6).
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Table 1.1: Amphetamine-type stimulants commonly used in Australia
a. Dexamphetamine (also known as dextroamphetamine sulphate) is sold in tablet form in Australia for ADHD and narcolepsy, in accordance with state and territory laws. It is also used illicitly.
b. In tablet form, the drug can be inserted into the anus or the vagina to avoid the irritation to the user’s stomach which commonly occurs when taken orally (also known as ‘shafting’ or ‘shelving’).
c. Terminology noted in Queensland.
Source: Australian Forensic Drug Laboratory, South Australia Forensic Science Centre.
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MDMA is chemically related to the amphetamine module, but has different pharmacological properties in that it not only stimulates the central nervous system, but also has hallucinogenic and/or entactogenic effects (United Nations Drug Control Programme, 1996). Consequently, MDMA may be classified as a stimulant or a hallucinogen or an entactogen. MDMA is included in official statistics as an ATS, particularly seizure and arrest data, and these sources often do not distinguish between amphetamine and MDMA. On this basis, MDMA is included as an ATS for the purposes of this background paper.
The general misunderstanding and confusion about the various terms that are used to describe ATS was raised in the submission received from Turning Point Drug and Alcohol and Drug Centre in Melbourne:
There needs to be a definitive statement that covers terminology and description of the mechanisms of action of ATS. The terminology should take into account use of terms that are primarily clinical and those that are primarily used in the justice system. We do not believe that each sector needs to use exactly the same terms as the terms serve different purposes in the different sectors (e.g., the term ATS is generally used among 5 justice and frontline workers and the term amphetamines is more commonly used among health workers) but each sector needs to understand the terms used in other sectors and why they might be different to those used in their own sector. An organization or consortium could be charged with Australia wide consultation among the sectors with an interest in this area to develop a consensus on terminology that would be used both at the state and federal level when talking about ATS.
In addition to illicit ATS, there are several licit stimulants such as dextroamphetamine and methylphenidate, and phentermine based diet pills, such as duromine. Licit ATS are used primarily in medications to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) such as dexamphetamine and Ritalin; anorectics in the treatment of obesity, such as clobenzorex and dexfenfluramine; narcolepsy treatment such as modafinil; and in nasal inhalers, such as levomethamphetamine and propylhexedrine (United Nations Drug Control Programme, 1996). Given the potential misuse of these drugs in illicit markets and debate about their therapeutic value, these drugs are subject to ongoing review by medical, health and law enforcement authorities. At present, few studies have investigated prevalence and patterns of use associated with diversion of these drugs to illicit use, highlighting this as an area for future research.
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